Documentation of Mongolian Buddhist Temples

The survey on the active monasteries and temples in the Ulaanbaatar area was carried out between September 2005 and April 2006[1] – 15 years after Buddhism officially revived. In 2007 summer some annotations were made, including some changes concerning temples surveyed in 2005/2006 (not all temples were visited again) and the survey of three new temples that were opened after April 2006.

The aim of the survey was to locate all active Buddhist monasteries and temples in Ulaanbaatar in order to collect information about their foundation, the tradition they follow, the identity of the founder and the present head (if different), educational activities, connections with other Mongolian or Tibetan temples and institutions, the number of lamas, the ranks (titleholders) held, vows of lamas and, most pertinently, details of the religious practice i.e. specific rituals and ceremonies, and the principal deities worshipped.

Initially, the aim was to survey only the post 1990 activities in the surviving temples and monasteries that existed at the time of the purges (1937-39) or were, due to political changes, closed down or destroyed before, at the beginning of the 20^th century where religious activities had revived, or to follow up a monastic body from this era, which had relocated to a newly built temple at a new site. As the survey progressed, it emerged that the foundations of all post-1990 temples in the city were interconnected through their modern founder to their master and his lineage and father-monasteries. It was then decided to include all the new temples in Ulaanbaatar in the survey (and on the surveyors’s suggestion currently working temples were surveyed, too, in the 2007 survey, Documentation of Mongolian Monasteries executed countrywide). Thus the survey of post-1990 monasteries became a study of the opportunities people in the capital have for visiting religious institutions for worship and, as such, forms the basis of an understanding of Mongolian Buddhist religious life in the capital.

The survey was done by personal visits by the researchers, who gathered data from the lamas of each individual assembly. The respondents were usually lamas with a specific rank in the monastery / temple or lamas who have other duties such as teachers, shrine supervisors etc. in the assembly. Respondents were not necessarily those with the highest rank, as detailed information, especially on the important aspect of ritual life and ceremonies, was more easily available from those participating regularly in them.

The information gathered by the researchers was supplemented by a limited collection of written sources: some of the bigger temples have produced printed leaflets describing their foundation and activities and these were used as sources wherever available; a number of books and articles published about the new temples were invaluable sources of information though most concern only the largest or historically most important that have been revived.

After the democratic change, the authorities decided that all religious institutions and organizations (Buddhist, Christian, Jewish, Islam etc.) were to be registered with the Ministry of the Interior and Legal Issues/ Ministry of Law and Interior (Khuul’ züi, dotood khergiin yaam). The first permit on the register was given to Gandan, the main monastery although it is not dated with the third being to Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery in 1994 (the second permit is for another religious community). The researchers were able to study a copy of the registry covering all the registered temples up to January 2006. However, it is clear from the registry that not all active Buddhist temples in Ulaanbaatar have registered (not to mention many active countryside temples very few of which have been registered) including, somewhat strangely, some of the biggest and most well known temples that have failed to register. Even among the registered temples, the registration date is some years later than the temples’ actual foundation date.

It is important to mention here that the main monastery, currently known as the Centre of Mongolian Buddhists, Gandan does not have any authority to grant permission for the foundation / operation of Buddhist temples in Mongolia i.e. it does not register temples or give permissions for temples to operate. Despite this, Gandan does attempt to keep a list of active Mongolian Buddhist temples, which is overseen by the daamal lam, Byambajaw, (in office since autumn, 2005), but all they have is the same list of registered temples found in the Justice Ministry.

In addition, the reality is that temples can and do operate without being registered. At present, any man (lama) can establish a monastery and be its head, if he is able to find other lamas (from the Buddhist point of view, four gelen, fully-ordained lama would be necessary to form a Sangha though this is rarely observed in Mongolia) who accept him as head, and if he can find a place for the regular chantings even if this is a yurt. The temples’ survival effectively depends on the donors, to provide financial support for the new temple.

Due to the fact that frequently the date of registry is more recent than the foundation in case of a temple that is already registered, we can draw the conclusion that sooner or later other, now active but still unregistered, temples will register (and we can not tell now which will get registered in years to come and which will not), this seeming to be only a question of time and money.

Given the confused situation surrounding registration, the researchers have confined the information about the registration of individual temples surveyed (registered or not, operational permit number, date of registry) to the excel table of the active temples and have not referred to this in the individual entries.

Remarks on Transcription

A table is attached for the transcription system used for Mongolian written in Cyrillic, Classical Mongolian equivalents are given only in a very few cases. The Wylie system has been used for transcribing Tibetan terms. In case of the Sankskrit equivalent of a term, we have given them without diacritics as a compulsion. Chinese terms are also given without intonation marks.

The deity names and other Buddhist terms (names of monastery types, ranks, monastic wovs etc.) are given in their Mongolian forms, which in many case means a distorted form deriving from the Tibetan and sometimes from the Sanskrit equivalent. In every separate entry at the first occurrence of the given term the Tibetan and Sanskrit equivalents are given in paranthesis for easier understanding. Names of Buddha (sanjaa or burkhan bagsh, Tib. sangs-rgyas), Padmasambhava (lowon or lowon Badamjunai, Tib. slob-dpon pad-ma ’byung-gnas) and Tsongkhapa (Tib. tsong-kha-pa) are used in the text not in their Mongolian forms but in the way widely known from English sources (ie Buddha, Padmasambhava and Tsongkapa).

In references to present-day and old temples, the following abbreviations are used: ‘New Temples’ (and a number) for present-day temples included in the survey, ‘Rinchen (and a number given)’ for temples marked on Rinchen’s map 31[2] and described in the survey of the old temples of the Ulaanbaatar area, and ‘NOT in Rinchen’ for temples included in the Ulaanbaatar area survey but not marked on Rinchen’s map. Thus the reader can consult these referred entries for further details.

Overview of Results

The survey covers 33 monasteries and temples (counting Gandan monastery and its monastic schools as one), plus three temples opened after April, 2006. In the event only three of these are revived old temples on the same site, with some others being revived old temples or institutions on new sites. Some of the latter bear the same name as old monastic schools (datsan, Tib. grwa-tshang) or temples, but seem to have no or little real connection with the old ones. In some other cases such as the manba datsans (medical temples, Tib. sman-pa), zurkhai datsans (astrological temples, Tib. rtsis-pa), and Narkhajid and Baldankhajidlin temples, several new temples have the same name as an old temple and even claim to be the revivals of the old ones, but there is no proven connection between them and the old ones. All the rest are new temples established after the democratic change, often with connections to the pre 1937/9 Ikh khüree or countryside monastic foundations through the traditions of the founding old lamas.

Historical background

The present site of the capital, Ulaanbaatar, was established as the capital of Mongolia in 1778, when it was called Ikh khüree, ’the great monastic city’. Since then it became the centre of religion and state, with a very active monastic life. At the time of the purges in 1937/9, there were 100 temple buildings, monastic institutions and assemblies in the city (counting the individual temples within the Gandan and Züün khüree complexes separately).

In the 1920’s religion became gradually supressed, reaching its nadir with the purges in the 1930’s. The decision, made by the Central Comission of the Revolutionary Party at the Party’s 7th Congress issued on December 27^th, resulted in the mass executions of the monastics. In 1937-1938, approximately 17,000 lamas were arrested and executed, and almost every monastery, temple and palace in the Mongolian capital was totally destroyed. In the period between 1932 and 1940 about 900 monasteries in the whole of Mongolia were closed and mostly destroyed, including more than 100 temples and assemblies in the present area of Ulaanbaatar. The few temple buildings that were left standing in Ulaanbaatar were nationalized and used for secular purposes, such as prison, hospital, warehouse, circus or museum. The smaller temples on the outskirts of the city were neglected and, therefore, no traces remained of them.

After the purges in the late 1930s, only Gandantegchenlin Monastery was allowed to reopen (in 1944), but its functions were carried out under the strict supervision of the socialist government. However, in 1970, the authorities allowed the establishment of the Mongolian Buddhist Institute (later to become University) to educate lamas not just from Mongolia but also from the Buddhist Russian autonomous regions to the north, to rejuvenate the increasingly elderly monastic community. For decades, Gandan was the only fully operating temple in Mongolia.

Post 1990 Revival

After the 1990 democratic change, Mongolians were able to practice Buddhism freely, and monasteries, temples and Buddhist Institutes were soon re-opened or newly established. Currently, it is estimated that there are about two hundred such monasteries and temples throughout the country (though the Documentation of Mongolian Monasteries survey in 2007 summer executed in all aimags by six research groups, with the authors of the present survey being sent to Öwörkhagai, Dundgow’ and Töw aimags, proved that about half of these newly founded temples are inactive by now or only has annual or monthly ceremonies). Religion and monastic education is being re-organized in the monasteries that are still active 15-17 years after the revival. In addition lamas, and some female lamas, are being sent to India to study the Buddhist teaching at a high level in Tibetan monastic universities and institutions. The intention is that these highly educated lamas will return to Mongolia to pass on their knowledge to a younger generation of lamas in Mongolia. Most of them are able to spend only a year or so there, but a very few was able to study through different monastic classes for ten years, have returned by now and are teaching in Mongolia, mostly in the datsans of Gandan.

Notwithstanding this, the springboard of the revival of Mongolian Buddhism is based on the memories and devoted activities of old lamas who are now in their 80’s or 90’s. At the time of the research the number of old lamas, to whom the revival owes so much, had dwindled considerably, and it is estimated that this generation will have passed away within the next decade.

At the time of the survey there were 33 temples operating in Ulaanbaatar, by 2007 three more temples were established. Some are on their original site such as Gandantegchenlin Monastery (Rinchen 912), Dambadarjaa Monastery (Rinchen 939) and Züün khüree Dashchoilin khiid – not recorded by Rinchen in his map, therefore included in the survey as NOT in Rinchen 942 (which operates in two remaining wooden yurt temples). Some old temple buildings have been used for establishing new communities of lamas: such as Zurkhain datsan and Gandan’s Badamyogo datsan, which have been established in some of the remaining buildings in the old Western Geser Temple (Rinchen 914); and the Dar' Ekh khiid/ Dulmalin khiid in the old Tara Temple (Rinchen 931).

However, as almost all the temples in the capital were either totally destroyed or had only partial remains, most new temples have been set up in newly built buildings. The common pattern for new communities is to set up their ‘temple’ activities in a yurt (ger) and erect the temple building later according to their means (i.e. financial support from their supporters). Indeed when the survey was being carried out six temples were operating in yurts, namely Jüd datsan (see the current situation part of entry Rinchen 912), Gandangejeelin khiid (New Temples 10), Agrim datsan (New Temples 17), Choin dechin dashsünbrellin (New Temples 26), Dechin choilin tawshi sünbrellin datsan (New Temples 27), Mongol Unshlagat Buyan arwijikhui khiid (New Temples 33). The community carrying out the daily chantings and readings create a temple not in a permanent building, even in the modern times. This attitude has its roots in the nomadic Mongolian tradition as well as being due to financial factors. In the last few years many small shrines have been erected signaling that the revival and dissemination of religion is still in process. At the time of the survey, most of the suburbs (yurt districts) of the capital have their own shrines, usually housed in a yurt or a small wooden building. In many of these newly established shrines there are only one or two adult lamas who endeavor to teach young novices i.e. to educate the next generation.

Another common occurrence of late is that several monasteries located in the countryside are setting up a small temple in Ulaanbaatar with a number of their lamas residing there. For example, there is a temple with lamas from Zawkhan aimag (Dechinarawjailin khiid, New Temples 16), a temple with lamas from Sükhbaatar aimag (Agrim datsan, New Temples 17) and two temples founded by lamas of Arkhangai aimag (Gandangejeelin khiid, New Temples 10) and Janchüwish dashlkhündüwlin khiid (New Temples 11).

New communities of lamas and temples appear all the time, and this survey will be out of date as soon as it is published. On the other hand, survival is not easy for many of the small communities that have tried to establish themselves, with problems of all kinds arising including financial. Indeed during this survey, one of the temples visited closed down: it was visited in September 2005, when its head was interviewed, but it had ‘disbanded’ with its lamas scattered a month later (Mongol Unshlagat Töw or Mongolian Reading Centre which worked in Bayangol district, on the way up to Gandan, led by P. Sükhbat lama). One assembly was temporarily not working due to it relocating during the time of the survey (Baldankhajilin, New Temples 31), while two others were able to continue their ceremonies while relocating (Mongol Unshlagat Buyan arwijikhui khiid, New Temples 33, and Agrim datsan, New Temples 17). In 2007 summer, when the researchers had only two weeks in Ulaanbaatar, some new temples were found that had opened since the time of the survey, which also proves that new temples are still being found.

However, while monastic life in Buddhist temples is considerably lively in Ulaanbaatar, with many temples and assemblies actively working, in the countryside there were and still are the old monks who kept temples working and ceremonies performed, and now, with their passing away, many countryside revived temples have become completely abandoned, with the young monks having been left without a master disrobing or going away to the capital and never returning. Nowadays this situation in the countryside means that though there were many temples founded after 1990, by now it is rather rare that an actively working temple can be found in a sum (subprovince, administrative unit within the aimag).

As Mongolian Buddhism is the same as (or can be said to be a special form of) Tibetan Buddhism, the Buddhist sects of this latter form are found today as well as being present in Mongolia historically. The mostly widespread of them in Mongolia, after the 17^th century, is the Gelukpa or reformed Yellow sect founded by Tsongkhapa (Zonkhow, Tib. tsong-kha-pa, 1357-1419). Other sects, the representatives of which played important role in the early history of Buddhism in Mongolia, were: the Sakyapa sect founded in 1073, with Sakya pandita (Tib. sa-skya bla-ma, 1182-1251) and Phagwa lama (Tib. ‘phags-pa bla-ma, 1235-1280) establishing strong connections with Mongolian khaans in the 13^th century; the Kagyüpa sect, among the sub streams of which the Karmapa was widespread; also there were Nyingmapa followers present.

Since the 17^th century up to today the Gelukpa sect has been and remains the dominant one, but there are also many Nyingmapa or Red Sect temples in Ulaanbaatar. Nyingmapa is a collective name, which became used for all the so-called ‘old’ sects i.e. the ones that did not follow the teachings of Tsongkhapa. These have their roots in the first conversion (Tib. snga-dar, 7^th-8^th century) of Tibet with the teachings of Padmasambhava (Lowon Badamjünai) emphasized.

The majority (22, including the ones surveyed in 2007, 25), of the Ulaanbaatar monasteries / temples, belong to the Gelukpa or Yellow Sect (this includes one nunnery and two women’s centres and a Mongolian reading temple). As it was throughout Buddhist history in the country, the ceremonial language in almost all Mongolian monasteries is Tibetan: Tibetan language texts are recited during the ceremonies, and all religious terminology is based on Tibetan. Because of this, devotees not only do not understand the ceremonies but, it is argued, the language barrier makes it less easy for them to improve their knowledge and understanding of their religion. (However, it should be mentioned here that, traditionally, it is not the duty of Buddhist lamas to educate people in religion, especially in the tantric Buddhism, as tantric practices should be kept secret.) Until now there is only one Mongolian reading temple in Ulaanbaatar. Here the daily ceremony, special ceremonies and the readings or remedies requested by the believers are all recited in modern Mongolian. This community feels that this enables the people attending the ceremonies to understand and follow the meaning of the readings.

Eleven temples are Red Sect, mostly Nyingmapa temples, including one women’s centre. However, despite considerable investigation, this categorization is relative. For example: Badamyogo datsan of Gandan, Tögs bayasgalant khiid and Baldankhajidlin were all described by our informants as Gelukpa temples, although they also manifest some Nyingmapa (Red Sect) features and could be called mixed temples. In fact, as both Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism is the mixture of the sutra and tantra traditions (sudriin yos, tarniin yos), tantric rituals are parts of the ceremonies in all Gelukpa (Yellow Sect) temples, though some are especially characteristic in Nyingmapa (Red Sect) ones.

It would appear that all the Red Sect monasteries in Ulaanbaatar belong to the Nyingmapa sect, worshipping Padmasambhava or Guru Rinpoche. There is currently only one Kagyüpa temple in the capital, Garma garjid Ürjin perenlailin (New Temples 28) monastery, which is presently operating in an office.

There are several temples for Buddhist women, although it could be said that the only authentic nunnery is Dar' Ekh khiid/ Dulmalin khiid (New Temples 29) where female lamas have taken the getselmaa (female novice) vows, wear traditional nuns robes and are permanently resident. Most of the women in the other temples have lay vows and do not wear traditional religious robes though some wear a type of uniform that differentiates them from laywomen. However, they are effectively laywomen and, as such, can and do marry, have children, have long hair and wear make-up.

There are also numerous religious associations or centres mostly led by an individual lama (Mongolian or Tibetan) who gives Buddhist talks, readings and ceremonies with the aim of providing basic religious education for lay people. These have not been included in the survey, not being temples, having no real lama or women assemblies, not having daily chantings but only occasional or weekly gatherings and carrying out rather different tasks.

Life in present day Ulaanbaatar monasteries

There is great variation in the number of lamas in the different temples visited in the Ulaanbaatar area. Gandan monastery (New Temples 1), the modern centre of Mongolian Buddhism, has more than 500 lamas. In Züün khüree Dashchoilin (New Temples 2) monastery there are 160 lamas. All the other bigger temples have about 20 lamas. Some newer and smaller assemblies have only a few lamas, despite the traditional requirement to have at least four fully ordained lamas (gelen, Tib. dge-slong) in any Buddhist Sangha (community). Nevertheless, in the small assemblies there is often only one adult and one or two very young novices, which impacts on all aspects of their monastic life, as this has to be adapted to the small number of lamas.

It is customary to have the same ranks or title-holders in all temples or monasteries. The head of a monastery is called a khamba (abbot, Tib. mkhan-po) or tergüün (head). The general view is that only the abbot of the large monasteries such as Gandan and Züün khüree Dashchoilin (as the second biggest and the inheritor of the old Züün khüree) bears the title khamba, while the heads of other monasteries and temples should be referred to as tergüün.

The 9^th jewtsündamba khutagt, Jambal namdol choiji jaltsan (Tib. 'Jam-dpal rnam-grol chos-kyi rgyal-mtshan, 1933-) who currently lives in Dharamsala, is considered, as the reincarnation of the first jewtsündamba khutagt, to be the leader of Mongolian Buddhists. (He has visited Mongolia only once, in 1999. The jewtsündamba khutagt, also called bogd gegeen, Tibetan Buddhism’s third highest incarnation after the Dalai and Panchen lamas, was the highest Buddhist dignitary in Mongolia up to 1924. The 9^th incarnation was officially recognized in Mongolia in 1991, though Reting Rinpoche in Tibet originally recognized him in 1932. The abbot of Gandan monastery, the main monastery, is currently referred to as the head abbot of the whole of Mongolia, and of Mongolian monastic establishments.

However, today most temple heads call themselves khamba, or are so-called by their disciples. Thus, in reporting the situation in each temple, we give the titles our informants used. In smaller temples there are almost no other titleholders beyond the khamba or tergüün, possibly an unzad/umzad (chanting master, Tib. dbu-mdzad) and a gesgüi (disciplinary master, Tib. dge-bskyos). In bigger assemblies there are usually two unzad and two gesgüi, along with a lama with the title tsorj (‘lord of religion’, Tib. chos-rje) and one the lowon (master, Tib. slob-dpon). As for the tasks these title-holders carry out, the unzad leads the chanting, being very skilled in the melodies and the method of chanting though, as important, they are well versed in all the texts that are used in all the ceremonies held in their monastery / monastic school datsan (Tib. grwa-tshang); the gesgüi is responsible for keeping order in every aspect of monastic life in the temple, maintaining order during the ceremonies and carrying out punishments if necessary; while the tsorj and the lowon both have important roles in special events or ceremonies, when they perform specific ceremonial tasks or conduct the meditation practices necessary for performing the rituals.

Lamas can take different levels of religious vows. All new lamas or female lamas on entering a temple or monastery (usually young boys at any age from 3-6 and upwards) take the basic genen (Tib. dge-bsnyen) lay vows for males or genenmaa for females (Tib. dge-bsnyen-ma), which are five precepts that any Buddhist believer can take. These five precepts can be ‘strengthened’ for young lamas by taking the barmarawjin/barmarawjün (Tib. bar-ma rab-byung) vows at which time the novice is given a new, religious name. After this, the lama can take the next step by becoming a getsel (Tib. dge-tshul) and a female lama a getselmaa (Tib. dge-tshul-ma), which involves keeping ten precepts. A lama becomes fully ordained when he becomes a gelen (Tib. dge-slong), whereby he agrees to live by 253 precepts. The equivalent of this gelen level of vows for women is the gelenmaa (Tib. dge-slong-ma) vow of the fully ordained female lama with 364 precepts, but the lineage of gelenmaa has never existed in Mongolia nor in Tibet (although some claim it existed before the lineage was lost).

Thus currently there is no full women’s ordination officially in the Tibetan Buddhist lineages so consequently there are no gelenmaa in Mongolia today. However, from the time of Buddha the rules relating to female lamas are much more strict than for lamas.

The present situation in Ulaanbaatar’s monasteries is that gelen are found in the required number (at least four) only in the monastic schools of Gandan, in Betüw and in Züün khüree Dashchoilin monasteries (New Temples 1, 3 and 2 in order), all of which have close connections with Tibetan monasteries in India where many of their lamas are studying. It is also the case that discipline is stricter in the above monastic schools and Betüw. In other temples there may be often only one or two gelen or none, and most typically in many of the smaller there are neither gelen nor getsel. The latter tend to have only genen or barmarawjin lamas. This seems to be the case especially in the Nyingmapa (Red Sect) temples in Mongolia.

It must also be mentioned here that in the current situation, Mongolian lamas who have the getsel vow do not necessarily observe the vow of celibacy as it is prescribed in Vinaya (Tib. ‘dul-ba, monastic discipline) and followed in Tibetan Buddhism. This is kept here only by the gelens. Many Mongolian getsel lamas have a wife or a girlfriend, despite the prescription in the monastic discipline or precepts. The getselmaa vow of female lamas consists of the same ten precepts, but as the interpretation of the precepts, which are the same, is stricter for women even in Mongolia, close connection is forbidden to them with men. The getsel vow, excluding as it does possibility of marriage, is still adhered to in Tibetan monasteries, but it is currently kept in Mongolia only in a very few strict monasteries. In Ulaanbaatar there are no such monasteries, and there the getsel lamas ‘decide’ according to their own consideration. However, married getsel ‘lamas’ are so common that it is often said that there is a different interpretation of the vows in Mongolia to the extent that it is not necessarily considered to be case of breaking the vows to be married. Tibetan and other Buddhist lamas do not accept the Mongolian’s assertion of a different interpretation of the Vinaya. They say the married Mongolian lamas are simply not following the Vinaya purely and, therefore, they should not be called lamas nor should they wear the lama robes. Indeed, if one thinks strictly in terms of breaking or holding the vows, we would have to assert that around 70-80 percent of ‘lamas’ in the Mongolian monasteries are not lamas (either as having only genen (laymen) that are not real monastic vows, or being married despite having monastic (getsel) vows). This question cannot be judged without taking into consideration the fact that, according to the present situation, the vast proportion of lamas in Mongolia do not reside in the monasteries, but live with their family and therefore share in the problems of everyday life with all its temptations. In Ulaanbaatar, even in Gandan only a small number of lamas reside in the monastery. The same applies to Betüw monastery (though it aims to become fully residential). All the other temples have no lamas’ residences and their lamas live in their own accommodation in different districts throughout the city of Ulaanbaatar, often far from their temple. However, there are many factors behind it. From the description of the individual monasteries and temples it will be clear that these are all smaller temples, in most cases only with one temple building.

Historically, lamas existed in great numbers in Mongolia who had taken monastic vows, spent some time in one of the monasteries, but then lived with their families, herded animals, etc., while remaining lamas. However, the majority belonged to and lived in and around the monasteries. It is also a historical fact that there were married lamas who always had their assemblies outside, though in many cases right beside, the big monastic complexes. In most cases, these married lamas belonged to different Red Sect assemblies (the rules of which, though are exactly the same as concerning the Vinaya). It was also possible that a married lama living in the countryside with his family gathered regularly in the monastery he belonged to originally.

It is also a fact that there is a strong interest in monastic life today. For many young men, it is true devotion that leads to the decision to join a monastery or temple, but for others a driving factor may be that, in some temples, lamas receive a modest income, not to mention food that is provided in all temples in addition to the donations from the devotees. In this way, being a lama or female lama is considered today as being tantamount to a job in the eyes of many.

Another factor for the present situation in the monasteries is the political history of Mongolia in the second half of the twentieth century. Following the purges, the few surviving lamas were ‘forced’ to break their vows and marry. Add to this the fact that Mongolian Buddhism was revived after fifty years during which it all but ceased to exist. The main drivers of the revival were the old lamas, who were lamas before the purges, and the majority of whom were by now married, mainly under compulsion. There is also a certain different interpretation still prevalent today in Mongolia (again regarded by many as a misconception) that Red Sect traditions have different regulations. According to this interpretation, these allow for behaviour not permitted in the Gelukpa sect, and, therefore, it is especially in these Red Sect temples that there are almost no lamas living a celibate life.

As for the women’s assemblies, in Ulaanbaatar there is only one residential nunnery for female lamas (all with getselmaa vow). In addition, there are three women’s centres, where the female lamas having only the genenmaa or laywomen vows, effectively live a lay life and can marry. However, in these assemblies this license does not apply to female lamas with getselmaa vow, for whom keeping the vow of celibacy is considered a must.

We have used the terms ‘lama’ and ‘female lama’ in the survey for any member of an assembly (and individual lamas) as we feel it is more suitable in the Mongolian context than using the terms monk and nun. In Mongolian the term lam (Tib. bla-ma), ‘lama’ is used for all members of the monastic assembly be they gelen, getsel (even for married lamas who do not keep the Vinaya rules purely) and genen or barmarawjin (even though it is not monastic, but layman vow). The same applies to the word emegtei lam (‘female lama’), or to the more honorific ane (Tib. a-ne) for female lamas (members of nunneries/women assemblies), though genenmaas are often called khandmaas (Tib. mkha’-‘gro-ma, dakini/yogini or female sky-goer, used for female practitioners). It must also be emphasized that in Mongolia genen also wear the monastic robes, and that for many it is not the first step on the way to becoming fully ordained but a position they will remain in all their monastic life while being still considered full members of the assembly. Thus, as using the terms monk and nun is inappropriate in many of the above cases, the terms lama and female lama were chosen.

Religious Education and Training

As well as being educated in ritual practice by taking part in the daily chanting, lamas receive further training from their tutor lamas. First, they study the Tibetan alphabet and learn short and long eulogies by heart. Then, the literary and deep meaning of Buddhist texts is explained, with Buddhist view and philosophy being taught. Larger monasteries, such as Gandan, Züün khüree Dashchoilin and Betüw monastery have their own schools, colleges or classes, but all the temples provide some kind of religious education.

A traditional form of education is still conducted in the monastic colleges (datsan, Tib. grwa-tshang) in the greater Gandan complex: Dashchoimbel datsan, Güngaachoilin datsan, Idgaachoinzinlin datsan, Dechingalaw datsan, Jüd(iin) datsan, Mamba datsan, and Badamyogo datsan. Lamas in these monastic colleges study hard to master subjects such as philosophy, traditional Buddhist medicine and astrology, and tantra. For example: in Dashchoimbel monastic college in Gandan, the highest philosophical exams, such as gawjiin damjaa (Tib. dka’ bcu, meaning ‘ten hardships’), were re-commenced in 1990 with students now being able to attain the highest philosophical qualification.

In addition to teaching religious education, the larger monasteries, such as Gandan, Züün khüree Dashchoilin and Betüw monastery, include modern education in line with the national curriculum into their monastic schools (for young lamas aged 11-16), and colleges. Notwithstanding their limited resources all the temples try to provide basic religious education.

As well as the education provision made by the large monasteries, from the beginning of the revival many lamas (now numbering in the several hundreds) from these communities are being sent to study all aspects of Buddhism to a very high level in the Tibetan monastic colleges and Institutions in India. The intention is that they will return to Mongolia and hand on their knowledge to a younger generation of Mongolian lamas and female lamas. Furthermore, Tibetan teachers and esteemed lamas, such as Rinpoches, are invited to the biggest monasteries to give teachings further supporting the revival of the Buddhist traditions.

Ceremonial cycle

Another big difference between the monasteries is the specific ceremonies and rituals they hold. In Mongolian Buddhist monasteries, the number of ceremonies held monthly depends on the size of the monastery or shrine, the number of lamas in the community, the main deities worshipped there and the special role or function of the monastery. Therefore each monastery has a determined set of religious texts that are read there for special ceremonies, and, also, on which texts can be read or chanted everyday at the request of an individual.

The ceremonial cycle, which follows the lunar calendar (bilgiin toolol, in contrast with argiin toolol, European time), consists of daily chanting as well as a prescribed set of ceremonies that are repeated once a week, once a month, on the same day of the lunar month (sariin düitsen), once in a season. In addition, there are the main religious feasts or the great annual ceremonies (jiliin düitsen).

In smaller monasteries, the usual practice today seems to be that, beside the daily Tsogchin ceremony (Tib. tshogs chen), only the most common annual and some of the monthly ceremonies are held. In contrast, the ceremonial calendar in the biggest monasteries is very full, consisting of a wide variety of individual ceremonies, with as many as ten different ones in any one month.

Generally, the monthly ceremonies are held on the 8^th, 15^th and 30^th of the lunar month these being called sariin düitsen ödör (‘the great days of the month’). Other distinctive days are the 10^th, 25^th and 29^th of the month.

On the 8^th the ceremony held is either the Manal (Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaishajyaguru), Ikh Manal or Manaliin donchid (Tib. sman-bla’i stong-mchod), the Medicine Buddha ritual, or the Dar’ ekhiin mandal shiwa (Tib. sgrol-ma’i mandala bzhi-ba), the Four Mandalas of Tara.
The 10^th is a special date for the Nyingmapa or Red Sect as it is the great day of Padmasambhava, called Lowon Badamjünai in Mongolian. On this day his Lowon chogo or Lowon tseejüü/ tseijüü ritual (Tib. slob-dpon-gyi cho-ga/ tshes-bcu) is held or the ceremonies of the dakinis, Khajidiin chogo or Khand chogo, Khand tseejüü (Tib. mkha’-spyod cho-ga or Tib. mkha’-‘gro’i cho-ga/ tshes-bcu). The later is also practiced on the 25^th of the month.
On the 15^th of the month usually the Sanduin jüd (Tib. gsang-‘dus rgyud, Skr. Guhyasamaja tantra) ceremony is held.
The 29^th of the month is usually the day for holding the ritual of Sakhius or Arwan khangal (Tib. bstan-bsrung), honouring the wrathful deities protecting the Teaching.
The last day of the lunar month, the 30^th, is the day when usually the Naidan chogo (Tib. gnas-brtan cho-ga) ceremony is held. This is a ceremony for the sixteen arhats, the main disciples of the Buddha, who vowed to preserve the Dharma until the coming of Maitreya.

In individual temples the sequence of ceremonies may well be different from the above. In addition, some bigger temples hold weekly ceremonies at the weekends as well, these usually being Oroin yerööl (Tib. smon-lam) and Lkhogtoi Günreg (Tib. kun-rig-gi lho-sgo). They are special ceremonies performed at the request of individuals or families to gain better rebirth for their deceased loved ones.

However, the ceremonies described above are the most common types that take place across each month. Individual temples can hold different ceremonies on the above dates as well, or have other rituals on different monthly dates, not to mention the chogo (Tib. cho-ga), bigger ceremonies requiring special initiation, held only in bigger temples. For example: the Awidiin chogo (Tib.‘od-dpag-med-kyi cho-ga), a ceremony aimed at clearing away all sins and praying that the deceased take rebirth in the paradise of Awid (Tib. ‘od-dpag-med, Skr. Amitabha) Buddha; and the Tsewegmediin / Tsegmediin chogo (Tib. tshe-dpag-med-kyi cho-ga) ceremony, which is a worship of Tsewegmed / Tsegmed (Tib. tshe-dpag-med, Skr. Amitayus) the Buddha of Boundless life. A special Nyingmapa (Red Sect) ceremony is Lowon chogo (Tib. slob-dpon cho-ga), for Padmasambhava.

In the description of the surveyed temples the ceremonial system has been described as this reveals much about its special features. For people visiting the temples for general interest rather than for religious practice, it is worth visiting a temple on the days it holds its special ceremonies, as more lamas are present on these days and the ceremonies are also more ‘spectacular’ than the everyday chanting.

The following annual Buddhist festivals or ceremonies are held in every monastery and temple: the ceremonies connected to the Lunar New Year, the great days of Buddha, and the anniversary of Tsongkhapa’s death (‘the great day of Zonkhawa/Zonkhow’, Zonkhowiin düitsen, Tib. tsong-kha-pa’i dus-chen or ‘The day he passed away’, Zonkhowiin taalal bolson/tögssön ödör) on the 25^th of the first winter month. In some temples the Jambiin chogo (Tib. byams-pa’i cho-ga, ‘ceremony held in honour of byams-pa’) ceremony in honour of Maitreya, the future Buddha (Maidar or Jamba, Tib. byams-pa), is also held annually.

The ceremonial events of the Lunar New Year, Tsagaan sar in Mongolian, are the most important in every temple. At this time, first the Adislaga (Tib. byin-rlabs), consecration, of the new balin or ritual cakes (balin or dorom, Tib. gtor-ma) takes place at the 26^th of the last winter month. On each of the 27^th, 28^th and 29^th of the Old Year (meaning the last winter month) a ceremony is held in honour of the three wrathful deities (Sakhius), one being central to the proceedings for each day. These are called ‘the old ceremonies’ (Khuuchin nomiin khural), as they are the final ceremonies of the Old Year. On the eve of Lunar New Year, a special Sakhius ceremony is held in most temples in honour of Baldan lkham (Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi, shortly Lkham). It is called the Tsedor Lkham (Tib. tshes-gtor lha-mo) in Tibetan, also known in Mongolian translation as Jiliin dorom meaning the ‘yearly ceremonially cake offering’ ceremony to Baldan lkham. This begins late in the evening continuing until the morning of the first day of New Year with a special thanksgiving offering, called Tsedor danrag (Tib. tshe-gtor gtang-rag) being performed to Baldan lkham at dawn. The ceremony ends with the ceremonial greeting, zolgokh, which is a traditional homage firstly to the highest ranked lamas, then to the remaining ranked lamas and teachers, after which everyone greets everyone, always the younger the older, in the prescribed order (zolgokh is practiced in Mongolia everywhere, on the first some days of Tsagaan sar when people visit and greet their older relatives in a ceremonial way).

The ceremonies conducted in the first fifteen days of the Tsaagan sar (Lunar New Year), referred to as ‘the great festival days of Buddha’s miracle showing’ (Burkhan bagshiin (tersüüdiig nomkhotgon) rid khuwilgaan üzüülsen ikh düitsen ödrüüd, Tib. cho-'phrul chen-po'i dus-chen or Choinpürel jon aa, Tib. chos-‘phrul bco-lnga, ‘Fifteen miracles’), commemorate Buddha’s defeat of the six masters, the holders of heretical doctrines (tersüüd, Tib. log-par lta-ba), by mysterious methods including miracles. During this time most temples hold the ceremonies of Ikh yerööl or Oroin yerööl, the ‘great or evening prayers’ (Tib. smon-lam) or Choinpürel molom yerööl (Tib. chos-‘phrul smon-lam, ‘prayers of miracle showing’), which describe the Buddha’s miracles. The Ikh yerööl is only held in the bigger temples, but even the smaller ones tend to have other, smaller ceremonies for fifteen days.

The other three great Buddha festivals (beside the 15^th of the first spring month) are as follows:

· The 15^thor full moon day of the first summer month, which celebrates three events of Buddha’s life (his birth, his enlightenment and his death). (Burkhan bagsh mendelsen khiigeed ilt tuulsan Burkhanii khutgiig olson, nirwaan düüriig üzüülsen ikh düitsen ödör, Tib. mngon-par byang-chub-pa'i dus-chen)

· The 4^th of the last summer month when Buddha first preached the Dharma or ‘first turned the wheel of Dharma’ (nomiin khürd ergüülekh/ (Burkhan bagsh) nomiin khürd ergüülsen düitsen or Choinkhor düitsen, Tib. chos-‘khor dus- chen)

· The 22^ndof the last autumn month when Buddha ‘descended from the god realms’. (lkhawaw(iin) düitshen, Tib. lha-las babs-pa dus-chen also called in Mongolian Burkhan bagsh tengeriin ornoos buuj irsen ödör)

On all the above occasions a special ceremony in honour of the Buddha, called Tüwiin chogo (Tib. thub-pa’i cho-ga, thub-pa being an epithet of Shakyamuni Buddha) or Burkhan bagshiin chogo (Burkhan bagsh ‘Buddha master’ being a Mongolian name of Shakyamuni Buddha), is held in the larger monasteries, while in the smaller ones magtaal, eulogies to Buddha, are recited. In the Nyingmapa (Red Sect) temples special readings are held to Padmasambhava as well as the Lüijin ritual (a ceremonial meditation offering the body as a means to sever ego-clinging and concepts of individuality), which these temples tend to perform on any important date.

There are other, more complex, annual ceremonies that have been revived since 1990 in some of the larger monasteries:

The Maitreya procession called Maidar ergekh, in which the lamas and the lay people circumambulate the monastery following a statue of Maitreya carried on a cart with green horse head, praying for the future Buddha’s (Maidar or Jamba, Tib. byams-pa) coming;
The Sor zalakh (Tib. zor-‘phreng) ritual, which aims to relieve natural disasters such as droughts, harsh winter cold, or contagious diseases and other negative phenomena, by burning a triangular based pyramidal shaped wooden construction (called sor, Tib. zor) with a sacrificial cake inside
The Tsam (Tib. ‘chams) ceremony involving sacred dancing.

In Ulaanbaatar, the Maitreya procession is held only in Gandan and Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery (with Lamrim datsan, New Temples 4, planning to revive it), while the Tsam ceremony is only held to date in Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery (in Gandan it was performed only once in 1999). Sor zalakh is performed in Gandan, Züün khüree Dashchoilin (here twice a year, before the Lunar New Year and also during the Tsam dance) and Dambadarjaa monastery (New Temples 7) and in a few of the smaller temples.

Traditionally the lamas with gelen and getsel vows observe the Khailen (Tib. khas-len, ‘oath-taking’) or Yar khailen (Tib. dbyar khas-len, ‘summer oath-taking’), the special oath-taking retreat period, from the 15^th of the last summer month for 45 days, which has its roots in the early Buddhist tradition of summer retreat observed from the time of Buddha. However, this period is only observed in those Mongolian monasteries where there are at least four lamas with gelen vows. In effect this means that at present it is only done in Gandan, Betüw (New Temples 3) and Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery.

Reading religious texts for individuals

In addition to performing the ceremonies, lamas in all the temples perform readings of religious texts at the request of individuals. This tradition of having religious texts read is not new but paying a fixed donation for them to be read (nom unshuulakh/ailtgakh) is a recent innovation in Mongolia. In the times before the purges, when every family had a member who was a lama, he performed all the readings in the family home. Nowadays it is common for families to invite a lama or a group of lamas to recite in their home. Usually a family (or someone in it) has an acquaintance in one of the monasteries, and they like to invite the same lama for all the occasions for which they request readings.

Nevertheless, to satisfy believers demands, who request readings in large numbers on a daily basis, the practice of reading religious books for individuals has been introduced into Mongolian temples in recent years. In almost all the monasteries surveyed there was a list of the most commonly requested sutras with a commensurate list of fixed prices for reciting them. (Note that these lists differ from one temple to another.) The list usually covers the common circumstances or life situations for which reciting of certain texts is recommended.

It is the case that in some temples there are no fixed prices or tariffs for reciting texts and believers donate according to their own circumstances and ability. This gives the least well off a chance to have religious texts recited, which they could not afford in those monasteries with fixed prices. Often they are the ones whose circumstances lead them to request the more ‘efficient or beneficial’ text readings, which happen to be the more expensive ones in the fixed price system.

However, it should be noted that most requests for recitations for a specific situations are made following the advice of a lama, with only a minority of laypeople choosing the texts themselves from the list.

Most of the requested texts belong to the zasliin nom category. These are remedy prayers i.e. texts read to correct bad states or conditions (illnesses, sufferings, misfortune or bad luck) and to secure prosperity, happiness or success. Another common type of reading is called gürem (Tib. sku-rim), which is a kind of healing ceremony or a protective prayer ritual for the sake of long life and prosperity.

The peak period for ordering texts is the beginning of the Lunar New Year, when the courtyards of the monasteries are crowded with people standing in queues to place their orders. (This takes place 2-3 days in to the holiday as before this people are busy visiting older relatives and greeting them with the tradition of zolgokh.) During the first fifteen days of the New Year, families visit the temples and ask the astrologers about the coming year requesting appropriate texts and remedies to be performed.

In addition to the above way of having texts recited for one’s benefit and advantage, there are two other ways of doing this: dagan bayasakh, ‘rejoicing’, (Tib. rjes yi-rang); and itgel ailtgakh, ‘going for refuge’ (Tib. skyabs-’gro). Both make it possible for a supplicant to sponsor the recitation of an actual ceremony. They give their name and the number of people in their family along with donation (according to their means) to the disciplinary master at a specific point in the ceremony i.e. before the tea offering (Tib. ja-mchod), when he reads aloud all the names of the donors. In case of itgel ailtgakh, ‘going for refuge’, they also describe the event or situation for which they are making a donation e.g. to facilitate a relative to recover quickly from an illness. The disciplinary master repeats the request loudly as he turns to the altar, in this way providing the requested blessing to the donor. Another way families of groups can donate is to offer all the food for the lamas for a ceremony (jandag, Tib. sbyin-bdag, ‘donor, patron’). Believers have many other ways of expressing their faith: they can bring and light new butter-lamps on the altar; put money on the altar as an offering; they can also distribute small sums of money or food to the lamas during the ceremony as donations (zed pog, Tib. ‘gyed phogs, donation, alms).

List of the active monasteries and temples in Ulaanbaatar (in Survey period - September 2005 – April 2006, and 2007 summer)

Note: When giving the English translation of a temple names, we use the word used in the name as given i.e. translating khiid as monastery, datsan as monastic school and süm as temple, without considering the real classification, the size or its layout. Thus the term monastery does not necessarily mean a monastery where lamas live, and may not even mean a monastery consisting of several temples, nor does datsan necessarily mean a monastic school with specialized education.

Gandan monastery (Gandantegchenlin khiid), its temples and monastic schools: Ochirdar', Zuu, Migjid Janraisig, Dashchoimbel datsan, Dechingalaw (Düinkhor) datsan, Güngaachoilin datsan, Idgaachoinzinlin datsan, Jüd datsan, Badamyogo datsan in the building of the old Geser süm, Mamba datsan (outside the walled complex to the north of Gandan)
Dashchoilin khiid/ Züün khüree
Bakula Rinbüüchiin Betüw khiid
Lamrim datsan
Ikh khüree Manba datsan
Ikh khüree Zurkhain datsan
Dambadarjaa khiid
Mamba datsan
Deed bod' khiid
Gandangejeelin khiid
Janchüwish dashlkhündüwlin khiid
Choidar odserlin datsan
Dashgümpanlin khiid
Dashchaglin khiid
Gandan Sodnomdarjailin khiid
Dechinarawjailin khiid
Agrim datsan
Namdoldechinlen khiid/ Jagarmolomiin neremjit ulaan yosnii töw
Zurkhain datsan
Gowiin Noyon Khutagt Danzan Rawjaagiin neremjit Ürjin Shaddüwlin khiid
Ikh Amgalan nomiin khürd khiid/ Ulaan yosnii töw Dechinchoinkhorlin khiid
Ürjin sanag rolwii choilin/ Lowon Badam junain nuuts tarniin nomiin khiid
Puntsoglin khiid
Dashchoinkhorlin/ Ekh ürsiin buyanii töw
Jürmeddechenlin khiid
Choin dechin dashsünbrellin
Dechin choilin tawshi sünbrellin datsan
Garma Garjid Ürjin perenlailin khiid
Dar' Ekh khiid/ Dulmalin khiid
Tögs Bayasgalant töw, Emegteichuudiin khural
Baldankhajidlin
Narkhajid süm
Mongol Unshlagat Buyan arwijikhui khiid
Mongoliin Ikh Khüree khiid
Gandanshaddüblin
Gandandarjaalin datsan

Description of the Monasteries and Temples

Gelukpa (Yellow Sect) Temples

1 Gandan

See Current Situation entry of Rinchen 912 in the Old Temples section for descriptions of present day activity for the main Gandan temple and its monastic schools Dashchoilin, Güngaachoilin, Idgaachoinzinlin, Dechingalaw, Jüd and Manba datsan.

See Current Situation entry in Rinchen 914 in the Old Temples section for descriptions of present day activity for Badamyogo monastic school.

2 Dashchoilin khiid, Züün khüree

See Current Situation entry for NOT in Rinchen 942 in the Old Temples section for descriptions of present day activity for this monastery.

3 Betüw khiid

Betüw danjai choinkhorlin khiid

Bakula rinbüüchiin Betüw khiid

Tibetan name: Dpe-thub bstan-rgyas chos-‘khor gling

Written Mongolian name: Bitüb danjai choyingqorling keyid

English name: Betüw/ Pethub monastery of Bakula Rinpoche, Pethub Stangye Choskhorling monastery

The monastery is in Chingeltei district, on Ikh toiruu, opposite to Geser süm, below the hill to the east, called Dalkhiin denj beyond which is Gandan monastery.

GPS was taken at the eastern gate

Elevation 1298m

N 47°55.248’

E 106°54.073’

Sonam Wangchuk. PO. No. 38/105 Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

tel. 976 11 322336, pethubmongolia@magicnet.mn

www.pethubmonastery.com

Informant: Ishtsültem, the disciplinary master of the monastery

This Gelukpa monastery was founded in August, 1999 by Kushok Bakula Rinpoche (1917-2003), the former Indian ambassador to Mongolia. Bakula Rinpoche is considered to have been the incarnation of one of the sixteen arhats, Buddha’s main disciplines. During his years as an ambassador, he contributed immeasurably to the revival of Buddhism and Buddhist institutions in Mongolia. As such, he is well known and respected everywhere in Mongolia.

Presently the monastery has about 30 lamas. About ten of them are studying in Gomang datsan of Drepung monastery in South India. At average, they spend five to ten years there completing the traditional Gelukpa Buddhist studies before coming back to their monastery.

There are three lamas from Bakula Rinpoche’s Monasteries in Ladakh, India in the monastery to teach and train the young lamas. Thub-bstan chos bzang agramba was the abbot at the time of the survey. He received his education at Gyüme monastic school (Jüme, Tib. rgyud smad) of Sera monastery. The other teacher from Ladakh, Thub-bstan blo-gros agramba (who also studied at Jüme datsan), is the present lowon lama of the monastery. The third teacher, Thub-bstan zla-ba was the late Bakula Rinpoche’s assistant. The monastery has a director as well, P. Oyunubaatar who is a qualified traditional doctor. There is another lowon lama with gelen vow, Dambatseween.

There are the following ranks in the monastery: two lowon, one chanting master and one disciplinary master. Unlike any other monastery in Mongolia today, many of the lamas in this monastery have taken getsel vows with others having gelen vows. In addition all the lamas are resident in the monastery and strict monastic rules are applied.

On entering the main temple, the images of the Guardians of the Four Directions can be seen, two on either side. The relics of Bakula Rinpoche, the founder of the monastery are inside a stupa made of silver on the left side of the main altar. The stupa was made by G. Pürewbat lama in 2004, and is 2.5 meters high and contains 110 kilograms of silver. There are also eight smaller stupas, all 70 centimetres high, covered in gold, which also contain Bakula Rinpoche’s holy relics. These 8 stupas are on shelves on the wall on either side of the temple. Renzon Rinpoche of Ladakh performed rituals for the consecration of the stupas.

The sidewalls of the temple are hung with painted scrolls including images of Nogoon Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol ljang, Skr. Shyamatara, the Green Tara), Manzshir (Tib. ‘jam-dpal / 'jam-(dpal)- dbyangs, Skr. Manjushri), Buddha, Tsongkhapa and his two disciples and the six-armed Makhgal (Tib. mgon-po, Skr. Mahakala). The main deity of the monastery is Buddha, the main protector deity is Jamsran (or Ulaan sakhius, Tib. lcam-sring), the Red protector. The main sculptures on the altar are of Tsongkhapa, Buddha and Maidar (Tib. byams-pa, Skr. Maitreya). There are two thrones before the altar, one with the picture of His Holiness the 14^th Dalai Lama, the other with a gold painted sculpture of Bakula Rinpoche.

The volumes of the Indian Sata-Pitaka Series are available in the monastery such as the Tibetan version of Ganjuur (Tib. bka’-‘gyur) printed in Urga and the volumes of the Mongolian Ganjuur.

The daily chanting ceremony starts from 9 o’clock. There are various monthly ceremonies: on the 8^th of the month to the Medicine Buddha (Manal, Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaishajyaguru); on the 9^th to the wrathful deities; on the 15^th to the sixteen disciples of Buddha (Naidan chogo, Tib. gnas-brtan-gyi cho-ga). On the 10^th and on the 25^th of the month Guru Puja is recited with a feast offering (Lamiin chodwiin tsogchid, Tib. bla-ma mchod-pa’i tshogs-mchod, ‘Guru Puja with a feast offering’). On the 30^th the Four Mandalas of Tara (Dar’ Ekhiin mandal shiwa) are read. On the 22^th a special ceremony is held in honour of Lkham (Lkham mamo tugon, Tib. lha-mo ma-mo 'khrugs-skong) and on the 25^th a special sacrificial cake (balin, Tib. gtor-ma) is presented to Choijoo (Tib. chos-rgyal, Skr. Dharmaraja, King of the Dharma, epithet of Yama), called Choijoo dügjüü (Tib. chos-rgyal drug bcu).

On the 4^th November to mark the anniversary of the death of Bakula Rinpoche (2003), there is a special ceremony held to commemorate and honour him with the reading of eulogies, prayers and the text of Guru Puja (Lamiin chodow).

Lecture for laypeople are held on weekday evenings (7.00pm) and on Saturdays (2.30pm) for those who are interested. They are given by one of the Tibetan teachers, and translated into Mongolian.

The reception room for ordering the reading of religious texts and a small shop selling religious articles and books is on the left side of the main temple. On the right there are the rooms of the Tibetan teachers, and the entrance to the school (downstairs, in the basement).

There is a religious school bearing the name of Bakula Rinpoche in the monastery (Bakula Rinbuuchiin Shashnii Surguul’), with the classrooms and the teachers’ rooms in the basement. The room of the monastery’s fortuneteller is also there. The monastery has a library as well, also in the basement. There is also a small shrine.

The monastic complex is surrounded by a high wall and has two entrance gates: one in the south and one in the east wall. Immediately outside the wall to the west of the temple there is a large stupa built and consecrated in 1999. In the main courtyard below the main temple there are two stupas.

On the west side of the courtyard a residence for the lamas is being built and is due to be occupied in 2006. On the east side there is a two-storey building housing the Naidan ardiin ulamjlalt emneleg (Tib. gnas-brtan sman-khang), a Traditional Medicine Clinic with consulting rooms and a dispensary. The upper floor is currently used as accommodation for the Head of the clinic and one of the two lowon. Tibet Foundation’s Buddhism in Mongolia programme office is on the first floor.

4 Lamrim datsan

Janchub lamrim datsan

Tibetan name: Chos-sde chen-po dga’-ldan chos-‘phel gling, byang-chub lam-rim grwa-tshang

Written Mongolian name: tegüs bayisγulang-tu nom arbidqu yeke kölgen-ü keyid

English name: Lamrim monastic school

On Zanabazar Street, which leads to Gandan.

TEL 364913, FAX 369201, 99196898, lamrimdatsan@yahoo.com

Elevation 1321m

N 47°55.132’

E 106°53.704’

Informant: S. Bayantsagaan, the head of the temple; Lodoidamba, the main disciplinary master of the temple (about 30 years old)

Written source: Mönkhsaikhan, D., Soninbayar, Sh. (ed.), Nomgonii sümiin Dara-ekh Lamtan Agwaantsültemjamtsiin buman zarligiin garchig, Öndör gegeen Zanabazariin Neremjit Mongoliin Burkhanii Shashnii ikh Surguul’, Ulaanbaatar 2005

Before 1938 Lamrim datsan was situated in the Gandan complex on the left side of Güngaachoilin datsan. However, according to the current head, this new temple can not be considered as a revival of the old monastic school, it merely bears the same name and has the same purpose i.e. to spread the teachings of the Lamrim, Tsongkhapa’s great work on the gradual path to enlightenment, and to hold ceremonies in connection with this teaching.

The present temple was built in 1990 on the initiation of the Association of Mongolian Believers (Mongol süsegtnii kholboo) and S. Bayantsagaan, a lama, who is now the head of the monastery. Before 1990 the monastery was operating in a yurt. The lowon (Tib. slob-dpon) lama of the temple, Khishigtiin Gombo is an old lama (born 1914 in the year of tiger), who studied in Baruun khüree (also known as Shankhnii khüree/Tüsheet khanii khüree/Ribogeji Gandanshadublin), Öwörkhangai aimag, Kharkhorin sum and Nomgonii süm or Nomgonii Dar’ Ekh lamiin khiid, also called Puntsagdarjailin, Arkhangai aimag, Khashaat sum (in Elsiin tasarkhai, which is the sand dune area on the way to Kharkhorin). He was a disciple of Dar’ Ekh lamtan, Agwaantsültimjamts in the 1920-1930’s and became a lama again in 1990. Since that time he has been the lowon lama of Lamrim datsan. The head, Bayantsagaan, is also the head of the Association of Mongolian Believers (Mongol süsegtnii kholboo), which initiated the foundation of about 85 monasteries and temples in Mongolia. Bayantsagaan studied and wrote his dissertation (at the Mongolian National University of Mongolia, MUIS) on the philosophy of Lamrim. As such he had a personal interest to establish a temple where studies of the Lamrim are emphasized.

The entrance of the complex is on the west of Zanabazar Street. Two rows of prayer wheels lead to the gate of the temple. To the south there is a stupa, which was completed in October 2005 and is surrounded by prayer wheels. In the back courtyard there is a two-storey building. The reception for ordering texts by individuals is on the right side of the entrance hall. In this temple there are fixed prices.

At the time of the survey this temple has the highest number of old lamas in Ulaanbaatar, who come from old monasteries in the countryside and the Ikh khüree temples. Many of those old lamas who joined Lamrim datsan after the revival were fortunately still attending the rituals at the time of the survey. The researchers were not able to interview all the old lamas in the monastery, as some of them did not attend the ceremonies during the survey period for a variety of reasons. However, they were able to meet and interview 9 of them, namely: the lowon lama called Gombo (see above); Nyamdorjiin Dashnyam, main disciplinary master (born 1913, had been a lama of Bogdiin khüree, Idgaachoinzinlin datsan, lived in Düinkhor aimag); Yondon Jambaa (1912-2007, Zeerengiin khiid/khüree, present Öwörkhangai aimag, Sant sum); Tüwdengiin Badamsed (born 1914, Nömrögiin khüree/ Samdanpuntsoglin/ Khatawchiin khüree/ Tsogtoi wangiin khüree, present Zawkhan aimag, Nömrög sum); Ganjuuriin Tsendsüren (born 1927, Baatar khoshuunii khiid, present Khentii aimag, Jargaltiin am); Osoriin Indree (born 1924 in the year of rat, Jadambiin khiid, present Dundgow’ aimag, Deren sum); Ambaagiin Tunaadegd (born 1921, Arwaikheeriin khüree/ Bandid lamiin khiid/ Üizen wangiin khüree/ Delgerekh bulgiin khüree, present Öwörkhangai aimag centre, Taragt sum, Arwaikheer town); Ösökhiin Bat-Ochir (born 1914, Beliin khüree, present Öwörkhangai aimag, Kharkhorin sum); Tsembeliin Günchin (born 1917 in the year of snake, Mengetiin khüree/khural, present Dundgow’ aimag, Luus sum). In 2007 an additional lama was interviewed, Darjaagiin Gonchig (born 1916, Mengetiin khiid/khural, present Dundgow’ aimag, Luus sum). As indicated, prior to the purges these old lamas belonged to different monasteries and assemblies in different territories of Mongolia. The interviews with them concerned the old temples they belonged to and the details of religious life in them. (This material is to be published later as is out of the scope of the present survey.)

Presently, there are about 50 lamas in the temple. There is a lowon, two chanting masters and two disciplinary masters. There are three lamas with gelen vow. Four of the lamas have gewsh (Tib. dge-bshes) rank, an academic degree in philosophical studies requiring around 15 years of study. Four lamas were sent to study in Sera monastery, South India in 2003.

The main deities of the temple are Gombo (Tib. mgon-po, Skr. Mahakala), Choijoo (Tib. chos-rgyal, Skr. Dharmaraja, epithet of Yama), Namsrai (Tib. rnam-(thos)-sras, Skr. Vaishravana or Kuvera) and Jamsran (or Ulaan sakhius, Tib. lcam-sring), the Red Protector.

The daily chanting is held from 9.30am. Various ceremonies are held monthly: on the 8^th in honour of the Medicine Buddha (Ikh Manal, Manaliin donchid, Tib. sman-bla’i stong-mchod ceremony), and also the Four Mandalas of Tara (Dar’ Ekhiin mandal shiwa) is offered; on the 10^th and 25^th Narkhajid dakini (Tib. na-ro mkha’-spyod, Skr. Sarvabuddhadakini) is worshipped (Khajidiin chogo); on the 29^th the wrathful deities of the temple are worshipped (Arwan khangal); and on the 30^th the ritual of the main disciples of Buddha, the sixteen arhats (Naidan chogo) is held.

The Lamrim ceremony, during which parts of the main work of Tsongkhapa, The gradual path that leads to the enlightenment, are read, is held in the middle month of every season from the 3^rd to the 10^th, in the other (first and last) months from the 3^rd to the 5^th of the month. On the 6^th of every month, more detailed form of the Lamrim is read in a longer ceremony (delgerekh ikh lamrim, ‘detailed Lamrim’). During these ceremonies the Lamrim text of Damtshigdorj or Bar’ lam Damtsigdorj (Tib. brag-ri bla-ma dam-tshig-rdo-rje, 1781-1848) is read. He was a great Mongolian lama and scholar, born in Gow’ mergen wangiin khoshuu of Tüsheet khan aimag (present Dundgow’ aimag, Saikhan owoo sum). He studied in Tibet as well as in Dashchoimbel datsan of Ikh khüree. Later he founded a monastery called Bragiriin khiid on the bank of Ong River on the Rocky Mountain (khadat uul, Tib. brag-ri). His work on Lamrim, entitled Pandelamsan (Tib. phan-bde lam-bzang lam-rim, ‘excellent beneficial gradual path of enlightment’) became a very important text in Mongolian monasteries. It is used as a main text in Sera monastery in Tibet.

On the 15^th of every month the Günreg (Tib. kun rigs) ceremony is performed to Günreg (shortly for Günreg Nambarnanzad, Tib. kun-rig(s) (rnam-par snang-mdzad), Skr. Sarvavid Vairochana, a form of Vairochana Buddha) for the deceased. In the middle months of the year the initiation part is included, (Wantai günreg, Tib. dbang), while in the first and last months of the year the ceremony (Lkhogtoi günreg, Tib. kun-rig-gi lho-sgo) omits the initiation.

In this temple several special annual ceremonies are held. On the 16^th of the first spring month Danrag (Tib. gtang-rag), a thanksgiving offering, is made to the wrathful protector deities. On the 17^th of the first spring month the temple plans to revive the Maitreya procession, which, up to now, is only being held in Gandan and Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery in Ulaanbaatar, and in a very few bigger monasteries in the countryside.

On the 8^th of the first summer month, which is the great Düitsen month (Tib. dus-chen, ‘great time, festival’), a thousand-fold offering is presented in honour of the Medicine Buddha (Manaliin donchid or Donchidtoi Manal, Tib. sman-bla’i stong-mchod). From the 13^th until the 17^th day of the month Maaniin büteel (Tib. ma-n.i sgrub) is performed to Janraiseg (Avalokiteshvara) for 5 days non-stop culminating with a water offering (Usan takhil, Tib. chu gtor, ‘libation, water’ (gtor-ma) offering’). On the 8^th and 15^th of the first summer month, the meditation of Manal (Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaisajyaguru), the Medicine Buddha and Janraiseg are practiced with the participation of four to eight lamas. On the 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th of the last summer month the Ganjuur is recited.

The Shambalin chogo (Tib. shambha-la’i cho-ga) ceremony for the deceased is held annually although there is no fixed date for it.

On the 22^nd of the last autumn month, one of the Buddha anniversaries, when Buddha descended from the god realms (lkhawaw(iin) düitshen, Tib. lha-las babs-pa dus-chen), a ceremony entitled Jalbasengiin Ariin Donchid tsogchid (Tib. rgyal-ba seng-ge’i nga-ro’i stong-mchod tshogs-mchod), ‘the fest-offering and thousandfold-offering to Jalba senge aro/Jalba sengiin ar(o) ('victorious lion's roar', name of a buddha’) is performed.

Lamrim datsan has a meditation retreat, founded by Bayantsagaan, near the Turtle Rock in Terelj (50 kms from Ulaanbaatar in the Nalaikh district). The temple bears the name of Aryaabal (Tib. thugs-rje chen-po, Skr. Aryapala, Mahakarunika), that is ‘the great compasionate one’, an epithet of Avalokitesvara (Aryapala meditation and initiation center, Ariyaabal Burkhanii Nomlol Büteeliin Töw, Tib. thugs-rje chen-po’i e-wam zung ‘jug bshad-sgrub bstan-rgyas gling, Mongolian name: Aryabala burqan-u arγ-a biliγ qooslal oroqui). It was founded in 1998 and completed in September 2004. According to the disciplinarymaster of Lamrim datsan, about twenty lamas go to the retreat centre from Lamrim datsan to celebrate the great feast days. They burn butter lamps, meditate and do the fourfold meditation practice called Bumshi (Tib. ‘bum bzhi). During the survey visit the two separate smaller shrines, topped with stupas, on either side of the main building, were being furnished with the objects of worship though they were not yet open for use. There is also a small hut high on the rocky hillside, which is for meditation. Bayantsagaan plans to establish an exhibition in the basement of this temple with 200-300 illustrations illustrating the stages of the enlightenment. He is now working on the inscriptions for the illustrations to be written in five languages (Mongolian, English, German, Japanese, Chinese). (By the summer of 2006 this exhibition was already opened).

5 Ikh khüree Manba datsan

Tibetan name: Sman-pa grwa-tshang

English name: Ikh khüree medical monastic school

On the way up to Gandan (Zanabazar street).

Elevation 1341m

N 47°55.171’

E 106°53.702’

Informant: Tüwshin lama

A Manba datsan was situated in the area of Züün khüree before 1938, but this new temple has no connection with it.

This Gelukpa monastery is on Zanabazar Street. It is a red coloured one-storey building on the right side, near Lamrim datsan (New Temples 4) and Ikh khüree Zurkhai datsan (New Temples 6). Despite its seeming connection to Ikh khüree, through its name, there is no traditional connection with the old capital city.

The abbot, Z. Sanjiddorj founded the monastery in 2003. Before this time, the Ikh khüree Zurkhai datsan operated in this building and this has now moved to a building next door. The two monasteries were founded and are lead by the same abbot. The monastery has about twenty lamas some of whom have studied in India. Some lamas have taken the getsel vow while others have the genen vows. There are the following ranks: abbot, lowon, two chanting masters and one disciplinary master.

When you enter the shrine, on the left side there is the cash desk for paying for texts. In this temple there are no fixed prices and people pay according to their means. On the right there is the lowon’s room where laypeople can consult him.

Although this is a Gelukpa monastery it has two lamas who follow the Nyingmapa (Red Sect) teachings as well. They sit on the right at the back of the temple, and perform the readings of Lüijin and recite the texts of Zangad (Tib. btsan rgod/brtsan rgod). Two painted scrolls behind their seats show two deities beloved by the Nyingmapa, Padmasambhava and Narkhajid dakini (Sarvabuddhadakini).

The main deities of the temple are Manal (Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaisajyaguru), the Medicine Buddha, Buddha, Ochirwaan' (Tib. phyag-na rdo-rje / phyag-rdor, Skr. Vajrapani) and Tsagaan Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol dkar, Skr. Sitatara, the White Tara). The main objects of worship and images on the altar are the three central sculptures: Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol-ma, Skr. Tara), Manal and Ochirwaan'. There are paintings of Nogoon Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol ljang, Skr. Shyamatara, the Green Tara), Ayuush or Tsewegmed / Tsegmid (Tib. tshe-dpag-med, Skr. Amitayus), Jamsran (or Ulaan sakhius, Tib. lcam-sring), the Red Protector, and Biz’yaa or Jügder namjil / Jügdor namjil (Tib. gtsug-tor rnam-rgyal, Skr. Ushnishavijaya) around them. In the centre, there are two hanging painted scrolls: Manal and Dar’ ekh.

Daily chanting is held from 10am. After this, the so-called gürem, healing ceremonies are held. These are protective prayer-rituals for the sake of long life and prosperity with texts being read at the request of individuals (as in every other temple). The monastery has some astrologers. Laypeople ask them what texts should be read for them.

The only monthly ceremony in this temple is on the 15^th of the lunar month, when they chant the Four Mandalas of Tara (Dar’ ekhiin mandal shiwa).

6 Ikh khüree Zurkhai datsan

Tibetan name: rtsis-pa grwa-tshang

English name: Ikh khüree astrologic monastic school

On the way up to Gandan (Zanabazar street).

Elevation 1328m

N 47°55.164’

E 106°53.707’

Informant: Luwsanchültem, lama of the temple (about 30)

A Zurkhai datsan was situated in the area of Züün khüree before 1938, but this temple has no connection with the old one.

This Gelukpa temple is situated between Lamrim datsan (New Temples 4) and Ikh khüree Manba datsan (New Temples 5) at Zanabazar Street leading to Gandan monastery’s main gate. Despite its seeming connection to Ikh khüree, through its name, there is no traditional connection with the old capital city.

The abbot and the founder of the monastery is Z. Sanjiddorj, the same who heads and founded Ikh khüree Manba datsan next door to this temple. Ikh khüree Zurkhai datsan was opened in 1995. In the first years it operated in the building of the present Ikh khüree Mamba datsan and moved to its present building in 2002.

Presently the temple has 40 lamas some of who have studied in India and most of whom have getsel vows. The ranks are the following: abbot, two lowons, two chanting masters and one disciplinary master.

The main deity of the temple is Tsagaan Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol dkar, Skr. Sitatara, the White Tara). There are the following objects of worship and images on the altar: sculptures of Tsagaan Dar’ ekh, Tsongkhapa, Buddha, Namsrai (Tib. rnam-(thos)-sras, Skr. Vaishravana), and painted scrolls of Jigjid (Tib. ‘jigs-byed, Skr. Bhairava, epithet of Yamantaka) and Ochirwaan' (Tib. phyag-na rdo-rje / phyag-rdor, Skr. Vajrapani). Above the throne of the disciplinary master pictures of Lkham (Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi) and Ochirwaan' are hanged. The volumes of the whole Ganjuur are kept in the monastery.

In this temple, on the 8^th of the lunar month the ceremony of the Medicine Buddha (Manal, Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaishajyaguru) is held and on the 15^th the ritual of Buddha’s main disciplines, the sixteen sthaviras or arhats (Naidan). On the 29^th the ritual of Amitabha (Awidiin chogo) is held and on the 30^th Guhyasamaja tantra (Sanduin jüd, Tib. gsang-‘dus-kyi rgyud) is read.

At the left side of the temple, there is a counter selling religious articles and this is also the cash desk where people can request and pay for readings with no fixed prices. The temple gives great emphasis on reading requested texts and giving remedies (zasal) to people so it is usual to see people sitting in front of each lama who is reading them their texts up to 4 o’clock in the afternoon.

In the basement of the temple there is a restaurant that can be entered from inside the temple.

7 Dambadarjaa khiid

On this monastery see the current situation part of entry Rinchen 939 (Dambadarjaagiin khiid).

8 Manba datsan

Other names: Mongol ulamjlalt emneleg surgaltiin töw, Busdad tuslakhui anagaakh ukhaanii “Manba datsan” khiid

Tibetan name: sman-pa grwa-tshang

English name: Medical monastic school

The temple is in Bayanzürkh district, 2nd microdistrict, on Ikh toiruu, near the Mongolian University of Science and Technology.

Tel: 458489, 457489, Fax: 976 – 11-458489

E-mail: lama@magicnet.mn

Web site: www.manbadatsan.mn , www.cultural-tour.mn

Elevation 1332m

N 47° 55.731’

E 106° 56.436’

Informant: D. Natsagdorj, head of the temple

D. Jambadorj, 24 years old, has been a lama of the monastery for 10 years

Written sources: Sereeter, Ö., Mongoliin Ikh khüree Gandan khiidiin tüükhen bütetsiin tobch. 1651-1938. Ulaanbaatar 1999

Bilgiin melmii, 2005 September-October, No. 20/ 62 Ulaanbaatar

Printed leaflet produced by the temple (Mongoliin ulamjlalt emneleg surgaltiin töw manba datsan)

A Manba datsan was situated in the area of Züün khüree before 1938. The head considers his temple to be its continuation and emphasizes this in the leaflet he has produced. However, currently there are two other temples bearing the same name, Manba datsan, in Ulaanbaatar (Ikh khüree manba datsan, and the one belonging to Gandan) and it can not be judged which has the closer connections with the old one

The abbot, D. Natsagdorj, founded this Gelukpa medical monastery in 1990. He is also the director of the traditional Medicine College attached to the monastery. He graduated at Zanabazar University in Gandan and studied Traditional Medicine for several years in Dharamsala. He has the rank of gewsh (Tib. dge-bshes) and maaramba, academic rank in medical studies (Tib. sman-rams-pa). He also heads a traditional teaching hospital in the Sansar district in Ulaanbaatar.

Yo. Amgalan, the Vice abbot (ded khamba) of the temple also holds this position in Gandan monastery. The tsorj, G. Diwaasambuu, is also the tsorj of Gandan and the founder of the new Garma garjid Ürjin perenlailin monastery (New Temples 28). There is also a lowon, two chanting masters, a disciplinary master, four golch or chanters. Furthermore, as in most temples, there is a chombon (offering master who is in charge of the offerings) and duganch, a shrine supervisor. There is also a lama with the title gergen lama, ‘old teaching lama’ (Tib. dge-rgan) called Sosoriin Dagwa who was born in 1910. In the years immediately before the purges, he was a lama in Dashchoimbel datsan, Gandan in Ikh khüree, attached to Toisamlin aimag, and before that, he attended two countryside monasteries, Mönkhiin khiid/Khuwilgaan khiid (Luus sum) and Zawa lam Damdin’s Delgerchoir monastery (Delger tsogt sum), both in the present Dundgow’ aimag. He was also interviewed about the old temples to which he belonged and details of religious life in them. (Again, this material is to be published later as is out of the scope of the present survey.)

Presently there are about 40 lamas belonging to the temple only one of whom is a gelen. Some of the lamas are studying at the adjoining Medical College. Unusually, four lamas are studying in Tibet, one of whom has arrived back after completing his studies there.

On the left side of the courtyard in front of the temple there is a circle of prayer wheels with a big one in the centre. On the right side of the main gate there is a stupa with the sculpture of Manal (Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaishajyaguru), the Medicine Buddha.

The temple is in a two-storey building, with the consulting rooms of the traditional medical clinic and the classrooms of the Traditional Medical College at the second floor, and a drug factory in the basement.

Inside the temple itself, there are two shops selling religious articles on the right and left side of the entrance. The reception for ordering texts by individuals is on the left side. In this temple there are fixed prices for the recitation of texts. An astrologer is available in a small room is on the left side of the temple. On the right side of the temple there is the pharmacy selling traditional drugs and their component elements.

The main deity of the temple is Manal. The main protector deities are Shanlan (Tib. zhang-blon) and Damjan/Damjin, ’the black coloured smith’, (Tib. dam-can, being a shortened name for Damjin garwanagwuu, Tib. dam-can mgar-ba nag-po), who are traditional protectors of doctors and medical schools. According to Sereeter (p 66.), the old Manba datsan, which was part of Züün khüree had the same protector deities.

Inside the temple there are the following objects of worship: in the middle there is a huge relief of Maidar, the future Buddha, which can also be seen through corridor windows on the second floor. On the altar the three main images are of Manal in the middle, and on his two sides Shanlan and Damjin, the two protector deities of the temple. Shanlan is a blue coloured wrathful deity with flaming hair, wearing red robe and holding a jewel in his right hand and an alms bowl in his left hand. Damjin is a blue coloured wrathful deity wearing a big round hat and riding a billy-goat. There are various thangkas as well: Manal; an assembly tree; three pictures of Lkham (shortly for Baldan lkham, Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi); and a thangka of Nogoon Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol ljang, Skr. Shyamatara, the Green Tara). A three dimensional mandala or palace of Manal is on the right of the altar.

The daily chanting is held from 9.00am. If another ceremony is taking place at the same time, then the Tsogchin (daily chant) is read by four of the lamas on the right side of the shrine, while the second ceremony takes place in the shrine read by all of the lamas. In this way all of the ceremonies can be held from 9.00am, despite though the monastery having only one shrine. Lamas sitting separately on either side of the temple chant the readings requested by individuals.

People usually came to the temple to pray for and have texts read for their and their family member’s health, and also in pray for their deceased kin to get a better rebirth. There are various monthly ceremonies. The most important, given the temple specializes in traditional medicine and the Medicine Buddha, are the ceremonies for the Medicine Buddha (Manaliin lkhogo, Manaliin donchid, Ikh manal) held on the 8^th of each lunar month. On the 10^th of the month texts of the protector deities, namely Jigjid (Tib. ‘jigs-byed, Skr. Bhairava, epithet of Yamantaka) Shanlan, Gombo (Tib. mgon-po, Skr. Mahakala), Gongor (Tib. mgon dkar, Skr. Sita Mahakala) and Damjin are recited. On the 14^th Ganjuur is read and a ceremony is held for the deceased (Oroin yerööl). The ritual Yum jai beren düisüm (Tib. yum rgyas 'bring bsdus gsum, the collective name for three texts ((Ulaan) Yum, Tib. yum dkar; Nit, Tib. nyi-khri; Jadamba, Tib. brgyad-stong-pa) in 21 volumes) is also read on the 14^th. On the 15^th Guhyasamaja tantra (Sanduin jüd) is read, while the 23^rd is the day of reciting the Lkhogtoi günreg ceremony (Tib. kun-rig-gi lho-sgo, ‘the south gate of omniscience’), which is performed in order to help the deceased to a better rebirth - to help them enter the realm of Buddha through the south gate of his palace. On the 25^th a ceremony is held in honour of Ayuush or Tsewegmed / Tsegmid (Tib. tshe-dpag-med, Skr. Amitayus), the Bodhisattva of Longevity (Tsegmediin chogo, Tib. tshe-dpag-med-kyi cho-ga). On the 29^th a special balin offering is presented to Choijoo (Tib. chos-rgyal, Skr. Dharmaraja, epithet of Yama) called Choijoo dügjüü, and texts of the wrathful deities (Arwan khangal) are recited. On the 30^tha ceremony is held in honour of Buddha’s main disciplines, the sixteen arhats (Naidan).

A special ceremony is held once a year and is called the Dewaajingiin chogo (Tib. bde-ba-can-gyi cho-ga), the ritual of the Sukhavati Buddhafield, a paradise in the west or the pure land of Awid (Tib. ’od-dpag-med, Skr. Amitabha). This ceremony is aimed at clearing away all sins and praying for the deceased to take rebirth in the paradise of Amitabha Buddha.

Another annual ceremony is one held in honour of the Medicine Buddha (Wantai Manal, Tib. dbang sman-bla), in which a sand mandala to him is prepared (dültsen jinkhor, Tib. rdul-tshon dkyil-’khor). In 2005 it was held on from October 9th to the 11th (i.e. in the last autumn month 6-8.). At the end of the three day ceremony the mandala is taken and offered into (zalakh) the Tuul river, at the place called Khar usan tokhoi at Gachuurt. A fire offering (Jinsreg, Tib. sbyin-sgreg) is also performed during these days. This ceremony was last performed in Mongolia in 1937, and it was revived after 70 years in this temple by G. Diwaasambuu, the tsorj lama of Gandan monastery, who taught the lamas how to perform it.

The Traditional Medical College (Otooch Manramba Deed Surguul’) has operated on the second floor of the temple since 1991. Its director is D. Natsagdorj, the abbot of the temple. The college has around 250 students and 20 teachers. There are three departments: Department of Traditional Medicine, Department of European Medicine, and Department of General knowledge. The college has extensive foreign relations with institutions in England, Switzerland, Japan, USA, Russia, Korea, Germany and Italy. There is a medical library with about 15,000 books. There is also a museum of anatomy and history of medicine on the second floor of the temple building. The College has a small hospital nearby in Sansar district with 25 beds, which is used as a practice centre for the student doctors, and also a centre in the countryside for studying medicinal plants.

According to the leaflet produced by the monastery, they also have a countryside branch, founded in 2004, in Zamiin üüd, Dornogow’ aimag, called Dogdolgünsellin khiid (rtogs grol kun gsal gling).

9 Deed bod’ khiid

Tibetan name: byang-chub mchog gling

Written Mongolian name: Degedü bodi keyid

English name: Deed bod’ monastery

Khaan uul district, 4^th microdistrict

On the way leading to the Airport

Elevation 1296 m

N. 47°52.207’

E. 106°49.495’

Informants: Sharawdorj, the disciplinary master of the monastery; Luwsanrawdan, the lowon lama of the monastery (Born in 1960)

This Gelukpa monastery was founded in 2002 by the then Vice Abbot (ded khamba) of Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery, Ch. Tsedendamba. He remains the abbot of Deed bod’ khiid despite currently living in America. At the time of our visit, there were thirteen lamas in the temple and four of them were children (i.e. under 10 years old). Some other lamas were away on their studies. The lowon is the only lama who has taken the gelen vows. Beside the abbot (khamba) there are several other ranked lamas: tsorj, lowon, a chanting master and a disciplinary master.

The main protector of the temple is Lkham (shortly for Baldan lkham, Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi).

Daily chanting is conducted between 9 and 10.30am. After, the lamas read texts requested by individuals while the abbot or other high-ranking lamas educate the young novices.

Monthly ceremonies in this temple are: on the 8^th a ceremony in honour of Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol-ma, Skr. Tara), called The Four Mandalas of Tara (Dar’ Ekhiin mandal shiwaa); on the 15^th the Guhyasamaja tantra ceremony (Sanduin jüd) is held; on the 25^th there is a ceremony in honour of the Goddess with the White Parasol (Tsagaan shükhert, Tib. gdugs dkar, Skr. Sitatapatra); on the 29^th the ceremony in honour of the wrathful deities (Sakhius) is held. On Saturdays Oroin yerööl ceremony is performed for the deceased. The special offering cake (Choijoo dügjüü) is ceremonially presented twice in a month to Choijoo (Tib. chos-rgyal, Skr. Dharmaraja, epithet of Yama). As it is a small temple with relatively few lamas, they are not able to hold the bigger rituals (chogo, lkhogo), not just because of their small number but also because they do not have the initiations needed to conduct them.

On the left of the temple hall there is a counter where religious objects can be purchased and requests with payments can be made for reading texts. In this temple there are fixed prices only for the texts of zasal (remedy) category of readings, other texts can be requested by paying according to the individual’s means.

On the altar there are statues of Tsongkhapa and Buddha, a painting of the assembly tree, a painting of Yamantaka, and the ten wrathful deities. The image of Lkham (shortly for Baldan lkham, Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi) is hung above the seat of the disciplinary master.

At its inception Deed Bod’ temple was a branch of Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery through its founder, the vice abbot of Züün khüree Dashchoilin monastery. However, there is no connection nowadays.

In the direction of the city centre not far from Deed Bod’ monastery, a temple roof can be seen over above a khashaa (fenced area). At the time of the survey it appeared that only the roof of a temple has been completed. According to a local inhabitant it will be an astrological temple (zurkhai datsan). (N. 47°52.340’, E. 106°49.840’)

10 Gandangejeelin

Khalkhiin Zaya gegeenii güshig datsan

Tibetan name: dga’-ldan dge-rgyas gling

English name: Gandangejeelin monastery, Güshig monastic school of the Khalkh Zaya gegeen

Zanabazar street, on the way up to Gandan monastery

Phone: 91199191, 99192859, 309191

Elevation 1313m

N 47°55.063’

E 106°55.703’

Informant: Bold, daamal lam of the monastery

Written source: Leaflet published by the temple

This yurt shaped Gelukpa temple is the Ulaanbaatar branch of the revived Khalkha Zaya bandid (Zaya pandita) or Zaya gegeen’s great monastic city, Zayaiin khüree, in Tsetserleg, Arkhangai aimag, and was opened in September 2004.

According to their leaflet, Zaya Khutagt offered golden sand to Buddha 2,542 years ago with true deep faith. Later he was reborn five times in India, three times in Tibet, and seven times in Mongolia. His first Mongolian reincarnation was Zaya Pandita Luvsanperenlei (Tib. blo-bzang ‘phrin-las, 1642-1715), one of the most significant individuals in Mongolian Buddhism, who founded the monastic city of Zayaiin khüree in the area of the present day Tsetserleg town, Arkhangai aimag. The city was in two parts with the whole complex containing eight monastic schools and several temples. During the New Year and other festivals Tsam dance were performed with features unique to this monastery. Zaya Pandita made efforts to put an end to the wars between the Oirad Galdan boshigt and Öndör Gegeen, Zanabazar. (Oirad Galdan boshigt was the last of the great Oirad khans who fought against the eastern-mongols (khalkhas). He tried to resist the Manchus to maintain independence for the western Mongols in the 17^th century. His army was finally defeated in 1696 by the Manchus. The eastern Mongols having been already Manchu subjects since the congress at Doloon nuur (‘Seven Lake’, a lake in Inner-Mongolia) in 1691.

In the area of the main monastery in Tsetserleg, some of the temples of Zayaiin khüree survived the purges and now function as a museum. The revived community of about 60 lamas now use another small temple building that survived and this has the same name as the old one (Gandangejeelin). The 15^th reincarnation of Zaya Pandita, Luwsandanzanpüljinjigmed (Tib. blo bzang bstan-‘dzin phul-‘byung ’jigs-med) is the present abbot of both the mother-temple and the Ulaanbaatar centre. He was born into a nomadic herding family on 18 January 1972. In 1989 His Holiness the Dalai Lama chose him from among 1,600 children from Arkhangai aimag and recognized him as the 15^th reincarnation of Zaya Pandita. His Holiness the Dalai Lama sent him to study to the Sera Jey (Ser je/ Sera je, Tib. se-ra byes) datsan of Sera monastery, South India between 1999-2004 where he took gelen vow. He resides now in Ulaanbaatar. From the combined community in Tsetserleg and Ulaanbaatar, 20 lamas are studying in India and 12 in the Zanabazar Buddhist University in Gandan.

At the time of the survey there were 14 lamas in the temple in Ulaanbaatar. Most of them come from the parent-monastery; some of them have gelen and getsel vows.

The main protector of the temple is Baldan lkham (Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi). Daily chanting is held between 9.00am and 1.00pm, and after this the lamas read texts requested by individuals until about 4.00pm. There are no fixed prices for requesting texts here so people pay according to their means. The system of ceremonies follows the same schedule as the mother-monastery. Thus, the monthly special ceremonies performed in the temple are: on the 8^th of the lunar month the ritual of the Medicine Buddha (Manal, Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaishajyaguru); on the 14^th the ritual to honour the 16 disciples of Buddha (Naidan chogo); on the 15^th Guhyasamaja tantra (Sanduin jüd) and Guru puja with a feast-offering (Lamiin chodwiin tsogchid) are recited; on the 23^rd ceremony in honour of the protector deities (Sakhius) is performed; and on the 30^th the Four Mandalas of Tara are offered (Dar’ ekhiin mandal shiwaa). Every Sunday Oroin yerööl ceremony is held for the deceased. As well as the abbot, there are other titled lamas such as a lowon, L. Dashkhüü, a chanting master, a disciplinary master and a daamal lama. There is a fortune-teller as well.

Around on the wall of the yurt there are painted scrolls of the reincarnations of Zaya Pandita. On the altar there is an image of Buddha, a large photograph of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, a portrait of the 14^th Zaya Pandita, a photo of the present reincarnation (the 15^th) and an image of Baldan Lkham.

Astrologers of the temple minister to individuals, operating either in a separate building or in a yurt alongside the yurt-shaped temple.

The monastic authorities plan to construct a permanent building for the temple and to establish a monastic school in the precinct. At present, local families, who have pitched their yurts here, still occupy the area designated for this.

11 Janchüwish dashlkhündüwlin khiid

Tibetan name: byang-chub ye-shes bkra-shis lhun-grub gling

English name: Janchüwish dashlkhündüwlin monastery

Songino khairkhan district, 20^th khoroo

22^nd milestone on the road to Kharkhorin from Ulaanbaatar

N. 47°54.021’

E. 106°41.26’

Informants: Ganzorig, the disciplinary master of the temple; Ya. Günaajaw, old lama in this temple (born in 1915)

D. Dorjtseween, from Tsetserleg, capital of Arkhangai aimag, founded this Gelukpa monastery in 2004 inside a big fence on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar on the road to Kharhorin. At present there are nine lamas in the temple all coming from Arkhangai and who include some with getsel vows along with one old lama called Ya. Günaajaw, who was born in 1915 and was 91 years old at the time of the survey. This old lama is still listed as a lama in Dashchoilin monastery, which he joined one month after it reopened in 1990 acting at that time as one of the chanting masters. Before 1937 he was a young lama in Khökhröögin khiid/ Khökhröö goliin khiid in Chandman’ sum in the present Gow’-Altai aimag. Apart from the head, there is a chanting master and a disciplinary master. The main protector of the temple is Baldan lkham (Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi). There is no connection with this temple and the Ulaanbaatar branch of the Zaya Pandita temple, Gandangejeelin (New Temples 11) although the lamas in that temple also came from Tsetserleg.

As the temple is some distance from the settled part of the city, most people who come to the temple are on their way to or from Öwörkhangai or Arkhangai provinces. Most have a personal connection with the lamas. Daily chanting starts at 9.00am. In the evening at 8.00pm a smaller ritual for the protector deities (Sakhius) is performed. Special ceremonies are also held monthly: on the 8^th of the month the ritual of Manal (Tib. sman-bla, Skr. Bhaishajyaguru), the Medicine Buddha is performed (Manal); on the 15^th and 30^th Doodüdwa (Tib. mdo-sdud-pa) is recited; on the 29^th there is the ceremony in honour of the wrathful deities.

Inside the temple a painted scroll of Nogoon Dar’ ekh (Tib. sgrol ljang, Skr. Shyamatara, the Green Tara) hangs on the left of the altar with statues of Tsongkhapa and his two main disciples below them. Statues of the Buddha and his two main disciples are situated in the centre of the altar and Lkham, the protector goddess with her two attendants, is on the right. Painted scrolls of Lkham and Namsrai (Tib. rnam-(thos)-sras, Skr. Vaishravana) can be seen on the right. The temple does not as yet own the volumes of Ganjuur.

12 Choidar odserlin datsan

Tibetan name: Chos-dar ‘od-gser gling

English name: Choidar odserlin monastic school

Songino Khairkhan district, 1^st khoroo

final bus stop of Orbit

N. 47°54.867’

E. 106 °45.150’

Informant: Zesbuu, lama of the monastery

This Gelukpa monastery is situated just before the last bus station in the 1^st microdistrict, after the satellite dishes, on the right side of the road. There is a big board with a picture of the monastery, its name and details of the opening hours. It can be visited between 9.00am and 5.00pm during the summer and between 10.00am and16.00pm during the winter.

The present abbot, Namsrai (born 1950), established the temple on 26 November, 2004. Namsrai came from Uws aimag and graduated from the Zanabazar Buddhist University in Gandan. His grandfather was a very famous tsorj in Uws aimag and his picture can be seen in the centre of the temple. Presently, ten lamas belong to the temple most of whom have genen vows. There is a chanting master and a disciplinary master. Daily chanting takes place between 10.00am and 3.00pm.

The main protector deities of the temple are Lkham (shortly for Baldan lkham, Tib. dpal-ldan lha-mo, Skr. Shridevi) and Namsrai (Tib. rnam-(thos)-sras, Skr. Vaishravana) who are worshipped every month, according to a schedule that is on the notice board. In addition, there are the special monthly ceremonies: on the 8^th of the lunar month a special ceremony is held in honour of